時間:2023-02-27 11:19:27
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[關鍵詞] 大眾文化;動畫電影;美學;藝術(shù)
美國哲學家奧爾特加是最早提出大眾文化這一概念的,他編寫的《民眾的反抗》書中提到:大眾文化主要指的是一地區(qū)、一社團、一個國家中新近涌現(xiàn)的,被大眾所信奉、接受的文化。羅森貝格認為大眾文化的不足之處是單調(diào)、平淡、庸俗以及容易在富裕生活中產(chǎn)生的誘惑和孤獨感。它的消費對象和主體主要是以都市大眾為主,按照市場規(guī)律批量生產(chǎn)的,再通過現(xiàn)代高科技的發(fā)展進行傳播,它為大眾提供感性娛樂,這在一定程度上降低了人類文化與藝術(shù)發(fā)展的標準,在歷史長河中起著加深人類異化的作用。 中國改革開放初期是大眾文化的醞釀時期,經(jīng)過不斷發(fā)展,漸漸地與中國傳統(tǒng)的精英文化和主流文化成三足鼎立之勢,中國動畫在這個時候開始逐漸受到它的影響。直到近幾年,“超女”“快男”等草根文化的興起標志著大眾文化開始大規(guī)模爆發(fā),讓另外兩種文化望其項背,大眾文化發(fā)展成為文化中的領軍,并對中國動畫電影的發(fā)展起著舉足輕重的作用。
動畫電影集合了文學、戲劇、音樂、美術(shù)等多種藝術(shù)門類,同時也是對現(xiàn)代科技的藝術(shù)化表現(xiàn)和對生活的藝術(shù)化再現(xiàn),它作為一種集合了多種藝術(shù)門類的復雜藝術(shù)形式,最直接目的是為了傳播,然而要傳播就要迎合大眾的需求。我國的第一部動畫片《大鬧畫室》的問世至今已經(jīng)有80多年的時間。如今,動畫電影藝術(shù)隨著高科技技術(shù)的高度發(fā)展獲得了空前的傳播能力。動畫電影作為傳播的媒介之一,將西方文化傳入中國,由此導致的工業(yè)化帶來的大眾文化正挑戰(zhàn)著中國動畫電影的創(chuàng)作風格和其中所包含的中國傳統(tǒng)精英文化。動畫電影的發(fā)展受人類的文化的影響,同時又體現(xiàn)和傳承了人類的文化趨勢與大眾的審美思維。在當前的大眾文化背景下,大眾審美趨向或者大眾價值觀對傳統(tǒng)審美思維和精英思想產(chǎn)生了空前的震動,這也導致了動畫電影作為集傳統(tǒng)與現(xiàn)代藝術(shù)于一體的藝術(shù)形式在本質(zhì)上更容易被最廣大人民群眾所接受,動畫電影的價值目標中所包含的人文文化形態(tài)受到大眾的關注。
目前國產(chǎn)動畫電影在形式上詮釋著中國傳統(tǒng)美學的同時,漸漸開始在內(nèi)容中關注人文本質(zhì)和人文精神、蘊涵著一種人文目標和昭示著人文價值理性。然而傳統(tǒng)文化帶來的美學價值觀開始與大眾文化在沖突中相互融合,大眾文化語境下,中國動畫電影的美學特質(zhì)有了新的呈現(xiàn)。
一、動畫形式美的個性化缺失
符號化的藝術(shù)創(chuàng)作實際上是對美術(shù)風格加以修改、簡化與提煉的過程,這也是動畫造型的由來,同時也是為了更好地表現(xiàn)運動的影像,以滿足敘事的需要。不管是中國早期的動畫造型形式美還是日式和美式的造型形式美都在極力地弘揚個性,比如我國早期水墨剪紙動畫中的“拉毛工藝”就是利用特殊紙張撕開后參差不齊的邊緣來獲得一種與水墨風格極其類似的效果。
如今,商業(yè)化、市場化、工業(yè)化帶來的大眾文化正深刻影響著中國的動畫電影,《大鬧天宮》《小蝌蚪找媽媽》等中國傳統(tǒng)的動畫表現(xiàn)語言已經(jīng)不能滿足當代大眾的審美娛樂化的需要,現(xiàn)代的動畫受眾深受日美動畫美學的影響,這也迫使國產(chǎn)動畫電影已經(jīng)開始重新審視自己。商業(yè)在改變中國傳統(tǒng)動畫表現(xiàn)語言的同時,也在推動國產(chǎn)動畫電影的發(fā)展,傳播中國的傳統(tǒng)文化,但是要傳播就要迎合大眾的審美價值觀,以牟取用來擴大傳播范圍的商業(yè)利益,中國特有的動畫藝術(shù)審美觀念正發(fā)生著從崇高向主流的轉(zhuǎn)變,這種轉(zhuǎn)變意味著大眾文化的勝利,它最典型的表現(xiàn)就是國產(chǎn)動畫電影中角色和場景的造型形式大量借鑒日、美動畫美學形式。
商業(yè)利益導致以復制為主要特點的工業(yè)化成為國產(chǎn)動畫電影的趨勢,它與精細、不可復制之間存在著極大的沖突性,在這個趨勢發(fā)展的過程中,美學形式的復制、高度提煉、簡化和成本的降低是必不可少的。從中國早期藝術(shù)家創(chuàng)作的《大鬧天空》《哪吒鬧?!分辛鲿硟?yōu)美而勁氣不泄的中國國畫式線條美到仿日式動畫形式美學的《夢回金沙城》《魁拔》《藏獒多吉》等用平涂的單塊來表現(xiàn)明暗關系的歸納形式美感,這是一種造型形式向另一種造型形式的轉(zhuǎn)變,同時也是非主流形式美向主流形式美的轉(zhuǎn)變,即中國傳統(tǒng)美學向大眾美學的轉(zhuǎn)變,說明大眾文化憑借自己得天獨厚的受眾廣而多的優(yōu)勢和媒體的傳播力量占據(jù)了藝術(shù)美學的中心。這種現(xiàn)象不能簡單理解為傳統(tǒng)動畫美學形式的完全喪失,或者說是中國動畫電影個性的完全喪失,而是傳統(tǒng)動畫藝術(shù)形式與大眾文化帶來的美學形式之間的相互融合和繼續(xù)發(fā)展,這也是探尋新時代中國動畫電影審美形式的必經(jīng)之路。
二、視覺愉悅的大眾化
動畫電影是一種具有高度想象力的集合體,它的本體是假定的視像,觀眾需要通過屏幕完成對觀賞視像內(nèi)容的理解,視像內(nèi)容則通過導演設計、文學創(chuàng)作、原畫設計、動作調(diào)整和后期制作完成。因此動畫電影藝術(shù)具有不真實性的一面。在不真實的假定視像敘述中,我們看到的是藝術(shù)創(chuàng)作者對于某種帶有鮮明形式感的藝術(shù)表現(xiàn)方式進行動態(tài)編輯與組合而形成的影像畫面。在此過程中首先就利用了藝術(shù)表現(xiàn)力對情緒進行控制,在此基礎上再利用具有藝術(shù)感染力的活動影像來打動觀眾。
動畫的創(chuàng)作過程,其實就是藝術(shù)家精心設計一個虛擬世界的過程。在這個虛擬世界中,動畫電影創(chuàng)作者可以盡情釋放創(chuàng)作的激情和特殊的審美情趣。然而現(xiàn)代受眾的審美要求在不斷被大眾文化帶來的美學形式所刷新,藝術(shù)家為了迎合大眾的需求,追逐商業(yè)利益來完成傳播,導致創(chuàng)作者逐漸忽視了動畫內(nèi)容的重要性,開始過分強調(diào)具有強烈刺激感和沖擊力影像的畫面形式感,以此來滿足廣大受眾的視覺愉悅感??茖W技術(shù)的不斷發(fā)展帶來了影視技術(shù)不斷進步,這為人們感受直觀的具有沖擊力和寫實效果的畫面提供了更為有效的實現(xiàn)途徑,目前的動畫電影比以前任何時候更強調(diào)它在形式上的視覺感受,大眾的這種視覺愉悅需求直接導致了動畫電影在內(nèi)容中淡化精英藝術(shù)所特有的道德感召、人文關懷、現(xiàn)實批判、哲學理念以及民族特色。在動畫電影《夢回金沙城》的制作過程中,由宮崎駿動畫電影制作的團隊來參與制作,畫面直接借鑒了日本動畫導演宮崎駿的創(chuàng)作審美特點,其取材則借鑒了中國西南部的景色,宮崎駿動畫電影畫面中對于細節(jié)刻畫的細致入微以及顏色的清新淡雅成為《夢回金沙城》畫面的形式美感。
三、藝術(shù)與商業(yè)結(jié)合的趨勢
中國早期的國產(chǎn)動畫被認為是完全的文化藝術(shù)事業(yè),沒有產(chǎn)業(yè)化經(jīng)濟的概念,不具備商品的基本特征,這樣的觀念在很大程度上阻礙了國產(chǎn)動畫的發(fā)展,國產(chǎn)動畫電影在20世紀90年代才在計劃體制下開始規(guī)?;?,并且漸漸開始迎來春天,開始有長度和產(chǎn)量的要求,如今在看到國產(chǎn)動畫電影發(fā)展的同時,也意識到國產(chǎn)動畫電影產(chǎn)業(yè)鏈的缺失,中國特有的藝術(shù)美學形式仍舊沒有找到與商業(yè)和新興美學觀念進行完美結(jié)合的有效途徑,這也說明國產(chǎn)動畫電影作為展現(xiàn)中國傳統(tǒng)文化媒介的同時與大眾文化所帶來的審美趨向及價值觀之間存在著激烈的矛盾。美國好萊塢動畫電影作為成熟的商業(yè)化的體系,每年除了大量的商業(yè)作品之外同樣會出現(xiàn)少數(shù)經(jīng)典的藝術(shù)作品,其次是以日本吉卜力工作室為典型的動畫電影,還有法國的動畫電影《瘋狂約會美麗都》,所以大眾文化所帶來的商業(yè)化與藝術(shù)的發(fā)展之間并不矛盾。
從20世紀90年代開始,隨著美、日動畫電影對中國動畫電影的沖擊,商業(yè)購買逐漸開始介入國產(chǎn)動畫電影這種藝術(shù)門類,并對這門綜合的藝術(shù)形式起著潛移默化的推動作用,但這也導致商業(yè)化在某種程度上淹沒了中國特色的傳統(tǒng)精英動畫藝術(shù)形式。在國產(chǎn)動畫電影產(chǎn)生消費文化理論后的這幾十年中,傳統(tǒng)的精英文化也開始吸收大眾文化的活力,這是一種藝術(shù)在表現(xiàn)形式上的變化和發(fā)展,比如動畫電影《藏獒多吉》《夢回金沙城》,它們在藝術(shù)形式上大量吸收了日式動畫的美學表現(xiàn)方式,日本動畫制作團隊或者參與制作日本動畫的團隊分別參與了這兩部國產(chǎn)動畫電影的制作,但它們均以中國西部的人文自然環(huán)境為背景,兩者的結(jié)合逐漸走向完美,以此來適應大眾文化背景下的審美價值觀,這也是國產(chǎn)動畫電影美學風格的全球化和民族化相結(jié)合的成果。
國產(chǎn)動畫電影的商業(yè)化不等于完全排斥中國傳統(tǒng)精英式的動畫藝術(shù)形式,現(xiàn)代大眾文化對于國產(chǎn)動畫電影的影響也注定高雅,審美文化在當下美學格局中有著不可或缺的位置。當前,中國政府對國產(chǎn)動畫電影的改革力度正在逐漸加大,動畫市場化和商業(yè)化運作觀念的確立以及對其運作模式的探索,都說明商業(yè)化和產(chǎn)業(yè)化必然要求中國要創(chuàng)造屬于自己的主流商業(yè)動畫電影。然而,這樣的轉(zhuǎn)變并不意味著中國傳統(tǒng)的藝術(shù)動畫電影就無足輕重,實際上,把中國傳統(tǒng)藝術(shù)形式納入動畫電影的商業(yè)化運營模式之中,在保護、支持、傳承中國獨特的傳統(tǒng)藝術(shù)的同時推進產(chǎn)業(yè)化進程,才是中國動畫電影的繁榮之路。
四、結(jié) 語
國產(chǎn)動畫電影不論是作為人性內(nèi)在、永不磨滅的高雅藝術(shù)而存在,還是作為崇尚世俗的大眾文化產(chǎn)物,都不應拘泥于某種單一的藝術(shù)形式。當前,中國動畫電影盲目追求商業(yè)化并不利于長遠的發(fā)展,這一現(xiàn)狀和大眾文化的泛濫有著必然的關系,雖然大眾文化帶來的審美觀念對中國動畫電影展現(xiàn)的傳統(tǒng)精英藝術(shù)有著強烈的沖擊力,但它終究是當代社會自然發(fā)展的產(chǎn)物,同樣需要遵循產(chǎn)業(yè)化發(fā)展的一般規(guī)律,中國動畫電影在這樣的大背景中已經(jīng)有了成功的案例。中國傳統(tǒng)的精英藝術(shù)要與大眾文化進行相輔相成的發(fā)展,來滿足不同生活階層的審美趨向和價值觀,要在變化的時代中反映不變的藝術(shù)真理和人文關懷,以體現(xiàn)人性之真、自然之美,并以引領人們追求真善美為其本職,始終保持大膽創(chuàng)新的創(chuàng)作思路,這些仍舊是中國動畫電影所要追求和弘揚的。
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【關鍵詞】 美國電影;第六日;西方文化;隱喻
【中圖分類號】G644.4 【文獻標識碼】A 【文章編號】2095-3089(2013)33-0-01
一、劇情述評
美國電影《第六日》(The 6th Day)是第一部探索人類克隆的動作影片,它把我們帶到科技已高度的不遠的未來,在那時,人類科技已可以任意克隆任何生物,甚至包括人類本身。然而,即便克隆人類的技術(shù)已相當成熟,但因社會倫理的限制,仍不被法律所允許。
人類的弱點之一就是往往抵擋不了利益的誘惑,在利益面前,不少人會很容易地就忘記了道德倫理和法律的約束而為所欲為。電影中韋恩實驗室(研究克隆技術(shù)的實驗室)的老板杜拉克便是典型的一例——他在醫(yī)學博士韋恩的幫助下不僅克隆了自己,也克隆了許許多多的被他認為對自己有利的人,電影的主角亞當·吉布森(Adam Gibson,阿諾德·施瓦辛格飾演)即為其中之一。
亞當回到家里發(fā)現(xiàn)一個與自己一模一樣的人取代了自己享受著本屬于自己的天倫之樂,其震驚、困惑、痛苦之情溢于言表。而作為觀眾,我們都不難想象假如這一切發(fā)生在自己身上,會是什么一個感受。于是,為奪回原屬于自己的一切——自己、家庭和愛,亞當開始了他的“正名”之旅。
如許多美國電影一樣,《第六日》也有一個好萊塢式的結(jié)局——亞當在其克隆體的幫助之下,成功揭開了這一驚天陰謀,并最終拿回了原本屬于自己的一切。
在這部電影中,克隆與愛兩大主題相互交織:為了愛,亞當違背了自己的本意為女兒克隆了他們的寵物狗;出于愛,亞當選擇與他的克隆體攜手合作,共同揭開了隱藏在克隆人背后的巨大陰謀;因為愛,克隆亞當黯然退出……。若是從圣經(jīng)和基督文化的角度去審視影片的這兩大主題,實則是矛盾與沖突的相互交織——是上帝創(chuàng)造了世界和人類,而人類無權(quán)去克隆自己,但人類偏偏又克隆了自己;上帝與他所揀選的民立約,要愛上帝,愛家人,愛鄰居,愛一切基督徒如兄弟姐妹,而片中的主人公所做的一切事情的出發(fā)點正是“愛”,包括克隆。電影就是在這樣的矛盾沖突中給觀眾留下了無盡的回味和思索:人類在享受飛速發(fā)展的科技帶來便利的同時,也不免擔憂——科技高度發(fā)達之時,人類是否還能掌控自己的命運?高科技給人們帶來的是福音還是災難?在高科技面前,人類應該堅守的倫理底線是什么?
二、對克隆的矛盾心態(tài)
1997年2月22日英國生物遺傳學家維爾穆特成功克隆出“多莉”羊的新聞被報道之后,克隆技術(shù)便震驚了世界;2000年6月26日,人類基因圖譜被成功破譯,這更為克隆人類在理論上提供了可能。但很快,顧及到社會倫理道德以及多數(shù)人的反對,多數(shù)國家通過立法明令禁止克隆人類。
《第六日》帶給我們的不僅僅是視覺的沖擊和震撼,更多的則是引發(fā)了人們對克隆人的深刻思索。影片最后雖沒有援引“第六日法案”對瘋狂的杜拉克進行法律審判,但對他的道德倫理審判卻是顯而易見的。
雖然如此,人們對克隆卻不免存在有矛盾心態(tài)。正如影片中的亞當,其本意是,無論何種生物,“生命的基本法則是,出生,成長,生活,然后死去”。但對女兒的愛卻又使他不由自主地走進寵物克隆商場,克隆了他們家的寵物犬“奧利佛”。這在片中的人們看來,為自己和家人克隆一個健康的寵物作為替代品已被普遍認可,即便他們?nèi)詮娏曳磳寺∪恕?/p>
克隆技術(shù)的出現(xiàn)和發(fā)展,顛覆了人們傳統(tǒng)的對生命的理解和思考:一則人們渴望借助克隆技術(shù)延續(xù)生命;另一方面,傳統(tǒng)的社會倫理法則又告訴他們不可越過雷池。正如影片中亞當?shù)乃妓骱鸵蓱]:克隆出來的,沒有靈魂,危險嗎?既然安全,為何不允許克隆人類?如何合情合理合法地運用高科技,尤其是克隆技術(shù)來造福人類,矛盾和糾結(jié)仍在繼續(xù)。
三、西方倫理文化隱喻與《圣經(jīng)》
文藝作品大都有其神話的、歷史的或現(xiàn)實的素材和思想淵源并受其價值觀念的影響,特別是神話傳說,“一直在塑造和影響那些民族的思維觀念,對各民族的思想觀念和文化發(fā)展產(chǎn)生了極其深刻的影響” [1]。而在西方世界,“《圣經(jīng)》的故事和傳說是西方文化藝術(shù)的重要源泉……它的思想和哲理已經(jīng)成為人們意識的重要組成部分”[2]。究其原因,在于《圣經(jīng)》典故在西方社會中影響的普遍性和深入性:《圣經(jīng)》典故在西方政治、經(jīng)濟、文學、藝術(shù)領域普遍存在,且已深深融入哲學、宗教、和意識形態(tài)領域,成為西方人的道德和行為規(guī)范,其影響力之廣、之深是任何其他典故所無法匹敵的。
正如深受儒家思想影響的中國人的倫理道德觀念基本來自于儒家學說一樣,《圣經(jīng)》及其典故所蘊含價值觀念成為以基督教為普遍的西方人所認可和信奉的社會倫理價值觀也就可以理解了。那么,西方電影取材于《圣經(jīng)》典故并將其倫理思想作為影片的主題來表現(xiàn)并不出人意料。甚至可以不夸張地說,整整一部西方電影史從未脫離基督教文化的深刻影響[3]。
電影《第六日》也毫不例外地帶有濃厚的《圣經(jīng)》文化色彩,我們從該片片名以及男主角的姓名這些細節(jié)就可見一斑,因為“一部電影及其片名總是浸潤在該民族的文學、歷史、哲學、宗教、傳統(tǒng)、習俗、傳說等形成的文化體系中” [4]。
《圣經(jīng)》這樣描述:“神就照著自己的形像造人,乃是照著他的形像造男造女……是第六日”(《舊約·創(chuàng)世紀》,1:27-31)[5],而片中被多次重復的一句臺詞正是“在第六天,上帝創(chuàng)造了人,上帝造人時在第六天”,凸顯了片名《第六日》的宗教文化含義;《圣經(jīng)》中還講道:“耶和華神用地上的塵土造人,將生氣吹在他的鼻孔里,他就成了有靈氣的活人,名叫亞當”(《舊約·創(chuàng)世紀》,2:7)[6],片中主人公也恰恰以上帝所創(chuàng)造的第一個人的名字“亞當”命名;還有,主角亞當·吉布森(Adam Gibson)的姓“吉布森(Gibson)”在古德語中的含義又是“光明磊落的誓約”,此名表達父母希望子女繼承其祖先財物及傳統(tǒng)的愿望。
這些細節(jié)除了在藝術(shù)手法上起到呼應主題的作用之外,更深層的含義則是表現(xiàn)該片主創(chuàng)者文藝創(chuàng)作的價值取向,即《圣經(jīng)》和基督文化所秉承的傳統(tǒng)的基督教倫理,即著眼于在肉體層面或物質(zhì)范疇解讀人(尤其是基督徒)與他人、社會及萬物的關系嬗變,目標指向以神人和諧為基礎,重建被罪扭曲的人與他人、人與社會乃至整個自然界的關系[7],重新回歸到“神”所安排的正常的社會和人類生活秩序。
可見,影片中所反映的克隆人爭議以及人們的矛盾心理,究其根源,正是來源于《圣經(jīng)》深刻影響下的民族文化傳統(tǒng),也反映了影片主創(chuàng)者對克隆人問題鮮明的“上帝取向”的生命價值觀和態(tài)度,即任何生命的誕生,尤其是人,只有通過正常途徑出生、成長的人,才是《圣經(jīng)》中所講的“神所應許的”,才是“神”所喜悅的,才是合情合理合法的,否則就是對上帝的不敬——因為人不可能像上帝那樣創(chuàng)造人類和世界;當然就是也是反傳統(tǒng)的和倫理的,自然不會成為多數(shù)人的共識而被普遍接受。
四、結(jié)語
任何文藝作品都會反映作者本民族特有的文化傳統(tǒng)及其附帶的價值觀念。歐美大片對所有學英語、用英語的人來說不啻于一個學習和了解西方文化的生動而鮮活的教材,也為我們提供了一個加深中西文化間相互了解、增加彼此間信任的絕好窗口。另外,一部好的電影帶給人們的應該不僅僅是精神上的享受以及文化學習和交流的素材,電影故事背后的故事及其帶來的對生命和人性的理性思考也非常值得我們?nèi)リP注。
參考文獻
[1]董廣坤,王傳順.《2012年》中的神話原型與末日隱喻[J].電影文學,2011:20.115-116.
[2]趙玲潔,趙彥榮.《圣經(jīng)》在西方文化中的表現(xiàn)形式及影響[J].時代文學,2011:8.88-89.
[3]楊然.電影中的宗教魅力——談基督教文化在電影中的文化價值[J].電影評介,2009:19.8-9。
[4]佟磊,沈秋敏.淺談西方文化與西方電影片名翻譯[J].時代文學,2009:15.149-150.
Key words:Black English; American English; American Culture; Influence
Contents
1. Introduction 1
2. The Characteristics of Black English 2
2.1 Phonetics 2
2.2 Grammar 3
3. The Influence on American Culture 7
3.1 The Influence on American English 7
3.2 The Influence on American Art 9
3.3 The Influence on American Literature 11
4. The Practical Significance of Black English 14
5. Conclusion 15
Acknowledgements 16
References 17
1.Introduction
Black English is a social dialect of American English, and it has been historically influenced by West African languages, General Southern American English and English-based creoles.
This kind of English shares several characteristics with the forms of Creole English spoken by people throughout the whole world. In addition, it also has pronunciation, grammatical structures, and vocabulary in common with various West African languages.[1]198 Since a large number of Black people migrate to America and they have the percentage of more than 12%, [2]496the Black English has been popularized in this country. But in the American society, people seldom realize the influence and contribution of Black English and they never give the equal state to Black people. In fact, the language and culture of American reflect the contributions of the Black English in many aspects, such as linguistic, art and literature.
Nowadays, it is reasonably acceptable to say that Black English is not only an independent language but also making practical significance to American English and the American Culture. Researchers need to study the significance in details. So this paper intends to collect the study of the characteristics of Black English, and then summarize its influences on the American English. Since the change of language can lead changes in other aspects, such as Art and Literature aspects, this paper also states the influence in detailed options.
The method of this paper is reviewing the past study and surveys, not just from the linguistic point of view or the historical aspects of Black English, but from its formation and characteristics to demonstrate the existence and development of Black English and the practical significance. Through the analysis of Black English on the profound impact of American culture, the paper advances a view on the value of Black English and its prospects. Finally it puts forward the importance and necessity of enhancing learning and research on Black Culture as the continuous improvement and economic conditions of Black people.
2. The Characteristics of Black English
Black English, as a unique variant of English, has many differences with the Standard English based on the structure of language. And this paper tends to discuss the features of Black English in phonetics and grammar aspects. Since Black English is not just a simplified version of English, it has a unique language system with the same fixed structure as any other dialect all over the world.
2.1 Phonetics
Most Black people use a distinctive English variant. This black dialect has aroused many linguists’ interests. Repeatedly been labeled as “pidgin English”, Black English’s role in the development of American Culture can not be questioned. Black English as a source of Black Culture has always been paid more attention by linguists and sociologists in nowadays.
2.1.1 The Weakened Consonant
Because of the influence of West African, some voiced consonants are the same with their form of voiceless consonant. Word-final devoicing of /b/, /d/, and /g/ are always pronounced to //, //, //, and in most cases these phonemes are ignored. In order to make a difference between them, sometimes the vowel before the voiced consonants could be slightly re-read harder, take the “heat and heed”, “let and led” and “fate and fade” which is ended with the word “e” as examples.
In the syllables which are combined with consonants and vowels, some nasals can also be weakened, such as “sum, sun, sung”, and only the vowel // in the word which is somewhat influenced by the nasal.
2.1.2 The Omission of Consonant Clusters
The simplification of Consonant Clusters is an obvious feature of Black English. The mutes in English are //, //, //, //, //, //, //, //, //, //. Black English often omit the mutes in the end of a word, and the word “side”// is always pronounced to “sigh”//. This kind of omission is not arbitrary, and it is decided by the situation of pronouncing a word: when the mute at the end only represents the morpheme is not connected, for example, the frequency of reserving // is higher than integral part of the stem in the word “borrow”. It will also be reserved if there is vowel behind the mute, such as the first “d” in the phrase “tried hard”.
2.1.3 The Pronunciation of // and //
The omission of // is a notable characteristic of Black English. In American, it is a tendency of underclass to omit // before vowels but not only of Black English.[3]297Because of this kind of omission, there is no differences between “guard-god”, “fort-fought” and “sore-saw” in Black English.When // is between two vowels, the syllable after it needn’t be pronounced, as “Paris” could be read as//; when there is a word beginning with vowel behind it, the // could also be regretted.
// is voiceless before the consonant, such as the word “health” always be pronounced to // and so on. However, when // is after the vowel as the end of the word, it is assimilated by the phoneme before it, such as the similar pronunciation with “mail” and “may”//. In addition, // is voiceless before // and //, as “always”//, “already” //. The more interesting thing is that they pronounce “will” to “ah”,for example, “I ah be there in a minute.” While the correct form in Standard English is “I will be there in a minute.”
2.1.4 The Pronunciation of // and //
In Black English, // is always pronounced as // and // is always pronounced as //, for example, “think” is pronounced to be //. While the // in the end of a word is transformed to //, and “mouth” is pronounced to be //, “nothing” is to //. In addition, the “th” in the middle of a word is always pronounced to be //, so “mother” is to //, “other” is to //, and “brother” is to //.
Actually, there are many more characters than mentioned in the paper, but we can recognize the differences of phonetics between Black English and Standard English just from the mentioned examples.
Smith Thurman, a well-known expert in Black English, said that black dialect used same number of English phonemes with white, and the only difference is the distribution pattern of phoneme.[4]553
2.2 Grammar
There are also many researches who have found the special usage in grammar of Black English. For example, the different meanings in the sentences “He workin’” and “He done worked” are hard to be explained by the Standard English. The first means “He is working 253.It also indicates the difference between Simple progressive and emphasized perfective. Not only the tense plays a different role in the grammar, there are many other points such as the relative usage of the word “be”, the negation and transmission of the word.
2.2.1 Tense
Syntax best embodies the characteristics of Black English. In the verb-system, the differences between Black English and Standard English are most significant, which is most similar with pidgin and Creole their ancestors used. In Black English, the only duty of the verb in the sentence is to indicate the time concept of one or a few verbs, and other verbs can be expressed in verb stem. Sometimes when the context gives essential temporal support, the tense can be totally regretted. For example, in the following section of black sermons, the Preacher has made it clear that he is talking about the past, because both the life and devotion of Jesus have already happened: “The man Jesus,he come your sins! He the thieves and here. He die to walk the earth. He you from go among try to Save the unrighteous. The master say whoever will let him come!”
In addition, the singular verb of third person in Present Tense is not ended with “s”, for example, “She work in the factory”.
Black English has two Perfect Tenses: “Remote Perfect aspect” which is constituted by the “been” and “Immediate Perfect aspect” constituted by “done”. At this point, Black English and West African languages is extremely similar. [6]
(i) The “been” in “remote perfect aspect” has a certain meaning of action in past tense. And this kind of perfect tense could be divided into two forms: I been know him(momentary action), I been knowin’-him.(ongoing action).
(ii) “Immediate Perfect aspect” uses the auxiliary verb “done”. In modern Black English, following sentence are commonly used:
① I done go.
② I done went.
③ I done gone.
These three are used in different situations:
① Used in the Immediate Present sentences.
② Used in the Simple Past sentences.
③ Used in the semi adjective structures.
2.2.2 Relative usage of “be”
The usage of“be”in Black English is also very special. If one action, thing or state does not happen frequently, the“be”in this sentence will be deleted. For example, “he in the house -watchin’ TV”. The abbreviation of the copula such as “is” and “are” can also be deleted. In addition, when in a passive sentence the passive voice is not expressed so clearly by the speaker, “be” can also be deleted, for example, “the factory built in 1958”. However if the action happens frequently, “be” can be used as the predicate verb in the sentence“they be out in the yard every night.”
When“be” and“do” work together means this kind of thing happens frequently in the Interrogative sentences and Emphatic sentences. For example, “Do you be playing all day?” (Do they play all day?) “Yeah, the boys do mess around a lot.”(Yeah, the boys do mess around a lot.) Famous linguist William Labov researched a lot in the Black English and concluded that: all the“be”which can appear in the forming of abbreviation can be deleted in Black English. [7]113Actually, the usage of “be”is far more complex than this conclusion which is easily got from the above descriptions.
2.2.3 Negation
There are three different versions of negation in Black English: “ain’t”, “don’” and “dit’n”, which can be written as “ain’t”, “don’t” and “didn’t”. While the special usage of “ain’t” is a feature of Black English. Ain not is a negative form in past tense: I ain’t see. In a sentence, the negation always repeated: I ain’t see nothin’ like that no place. The meaning is equivalent of: I did not see anything like that anywhere. (I’ve never seen this kind of thing in any place.) When the predicate is not active verb, ain’t become the only symbol of negation. For example, I ain’t afraid of nothing. He ain’t gonna get no money out of it. Besides, it can be combined with "ing" and make up the present continuous tense. For example, we ain’t kidding and we ain’t quitting, we ain’t turning back.
The function of “ain’t” in Black English is same with the “haven’t” in Standard English. Therefore the “We haven’t contacted each of her since last Christmas.” can be evolved to “We ain’t contacted each of her since last Christmas.” Sometimes, “ain’t” can replace the phrase “didn’t” in simple negation sentence. So in Black English, sentences can be like following forms: “She ain’t email me yesterday.” The young boy insisted, “I ain’t steal his wallet.” “I ain’t run like that in years.”
Multi-negation means there is not only one symbol of negation. Under this regulation, the pronoun needs to add some mark of negation.
For example: “She ain’t see any thing/ anyone at the railway station” can be changed into “She ain’t see nothing/ nobody at the railway station”. If the subject is “nobody” but not “he” or “Janet”, it will add negative determiner at the beginning of the sentence. This is called “negative inversion” by linguists. As a result, it is very common to hear that “Didn’t nobody say nothing to the peoples!”
3. The Influence on American Culture
An important contribution of Black English is the influence on the American Culture. The familiar “negro spiritual”, the unusual rhythms and the famous performance in movie and literature —all these originated with the slaves. It is said that what is the best and most original in American popular culture has its roots in Black English. Important black speakers, singers, actors and writers are too numerous to list.
3.1 The Influence on American English
He Ruigao expresses his opinion in his article Black English that there are some differences in certain aspects of language between Black English and American English. And he believes that after all, Black English is a variant of English, so the differences are only in some degree rather than fundamental, and do not affect the people’s contacts.
It is clear that there is a strong relationship between Black English and American English, while the distinct characters of Black English are not fully explained and its origins are still a matter of debate. One theory is that Black English arose from one or more slave creoles that arose from the trans-Atlantic African slave trade and the need for African captives to communicate among themselves and with their captors. According to this theory, these captives’ language developed into what are called pidgins, simplified mixture of two or more languages. As pidgins are from closely contact between members of different language communities, the slave trade would have been exactly such a situation. Not until the time of the American Civil War did the language of the slaves become familiar to a large number of educated whites. As the time passes, the Black English gradually plays an important role in the United States and U.S. Culture.
3.1.1 The Forming of Black English
In the slave society, there are so many different languages that the natives on two sides of the river cannot understand each other. But the safest way for them to keep their authority is to trade with the different nations on both sides of the river. The famous writer, Cotton Mather, claimed to have been very familiar with his slaves’ speech, and his imitative writing shows features presented in many Creole languages and even in modern Black English. By the time of the American Revolution, varieties among slave creoles were not quite mutually intelligible.
Not until the time of the American Civil War did the language of the slaves become familiar to a large number of educated whites. In Army Life in a Black Regiment (1870), Thomas Wentworth Higginson detailed many features of his soldiers' language. Shana Poplack has also provided corpus-based evidence from isolated enclaves in Samaná and Nova Scotia lived by descendants of migrations of early Black English-speaking groups. All of these researches suggest that the grammar of early Black English is closer to that of contemporary British dialects than modern urban Black English to current American dialects. We can find that the modern language is a result of divergence from mainstream varieties, rather than the result of creolization from a widespread American creole.
3.1.2 The Relations with the American English
In United States, blacks worked in this land with the identity of slaves and inherited some habits from the African culture and language, and thus gradually formed a black American society with unique culture. While the communication between the black slaves and the slavers became a major hub linking the two cultures, and produced a subtle influence to American English, which mainly reflected in English words borrowed, as well as the meaning of the word twists and turns, and the absorption of idioms. Its pronunciation is, in some respects, common to Southern American English, which is spoken by many African Americans and many non-African Americans in the United States.
There is little regional variation among speakers of Black English.89 In order to understand the United States and American culture, and to acquire its development, Blacks melt their culture, such as language, literature and art, with those of the United States. Later, Black English is not only for Black people, it is still widely used by a number of regional dialects. Even in literature works, authors often use Black English to show the hero's nationality, identity and upbringing.
Not only the phonetics and grammar of Black English prove the influence to American language, but we can also achieve it from the assertion of Black English. For example, “the blacker the berry, the sweeter the juice” means “she is very mature and favorable”. Another example, “you aren’t got a pot to piss in on a window to throw I tout of” means that you are very pool. “If I tell you a hen hip snuff, look under its wing and find a whole box” means that all you said is true. “You never miss yo water till yo well run dry” means that “you will never feel the importance of water until you are very thirst”.[10]6-7 The representative assertion is very lively and meaningful, suggesting the wisdom of the Black English.
3.2 The Influence on American Art
When Blacks live in Africa, they have the hobby to sing and dance during laboring. But then they are later taken away as slaves by the colonists to the southern United States plantation. They work in the fields wearing shackles and live in the primitive hut in the deserted swamp and jungle. But due to this kind of suffering, they create a valuable oral literature including hymns and blues and other Black Art, which has made an outstanding contribution to the culture to the United States.
3.2.1 The Integration with Music
It is generally believed that music of blacks has some distinctive forms from American music like American Ragtime, Blues, Jazz, Musical and Country music. Ragtime was first played by a black Anonymous piano, which was very popular in the late 19th century to early 20th century. It uses segmentation rhythm, trying to evolve from the popular dance music of blacks, and then Ragtime music appears. Scott. Joplin is one of the Ragtime representatives, and his performance of “Maple Leaf pull tone” has been a smash hit, which is so famous that all of the Ragtime pianist would play in their shows.
Blues is from field horn and songs with a strong feeling of African tradition and its tunes are always sad. The most famous Blues singer is Bessie Smith, known as Blues Queen. When Ragtime, Blues and other tunes with rich colors of Africa's influence add together with the elements in Europe, the Jazz comes into being.
With the integration of grammar, the ways people sing a song become various in American. Many young people jump into the swim of “rap” and “hip-hop”, which is considered as a really fashion style to express one song and the soul. While among the most famous masters, more than 90 percent are black people, such as the episode in Prison Break.
The word “rap” meant “blame” in the middle of 18th century and was always used in phrase in the 19th, “to take the rap” meant “to take the blame”. After the civil war, black people used it to blame white people and requested the equality with them. And finally it replaced the word “conversation” to be popular among the white teenagers. There are many simplifications of words in “rap” which become totally different with American English. For example, the “er” in the end of word is changed into “a”, “nigger” into “nigga”.[11]185 Besides, the “ks” or “cks” in the end of a word can be replaced by “x” because they have the same pronunciation. All of these examples prove that it has become a new version of grammar in American English. For example, the “re” or “e” which can’t be heard during a speedy song are always omitted such as “more” and “mo”, “for” and “fo”, or the number “4”. The omission of “g” in “ing” is another new grammar in American English.
Some words also change its pronunciation. For example, in the word “through”, “gh” never being pronounced is know to all, since we pronounce “th” // in stead of // there is no difference in pronunciation with the word “true”.
In the “rap”, the Black English has many distinct characters and its lyrics tend to be more fashion and creative. Most of these new word are very short or the abbreviation of some long words so that even the local Americans can not understand. In order to keep its character of fashion, “rap” uses word on the point of fashion. Therefore, the characteristics of Black English are the foundation of “rap”, which makes it no longer a simple style of music but a diverse style.
3.2.2 The Integration with Film
Film is an integrated form of art, with combination of test technology, art and commerce, and the thought of images it brings to the human mind is revolutionary. Because it's easy to be accepted, the film is destined to be a mass media on hundreds of millions people when it appears. In a short century, Hollywood becomes a symbol of American mass culture, and the influence on American society is immeasurable.
Film expresses and promotes the life style and values of Americans. During the war era, it boosts moral e of the soldiers. While in the Depression era, it could replace the cash of the American dream and reflected the public's ideals and dreams. In this case, blacks also express their dream to achieve the equality in the American society through the film, such as Shaw shank Redemption, the Pursuit of Happiness and Death Pact and so on. Because of the success of these works and the influence on future, some later generations continued to collect and summarize the classic dialogue in these black films, and to commemorate the black culture for future generations to study at the same time.
There are two characteristics of grammar which can be easily found in the black films.First is the invariant of “be”, and second is the multi-negation of“ain’t”.The invariant of“be”is used before verb, adjective, noun and passive voice in Black English.
(i)Your gas bill be high, don’t it? (Your gas bill is usually high, isn’t it?)
(ii) My boss be in his office by 8am. (My boss is usually in his office by 8am.)
(iii)It don’t be dogged. I grease it and oil it. (It isn’t usually dogged, I grease it and oil it.)
Laurel Avenue (1993) is a story about a family’s effort to counter drug, faction and violence in order to achieve the “American Dream”. In the film, when Rashhawn’s uncle blamed on his sailing drug, he said that “What the hell I be giving you money fuh[for ]?” while his word can also be translated to “Do you know why I always give you money ? ”
It is worthy to mention that this kind of grammar in the film is also very popularized by young Latinos. Therefore, the Black English users have crossed the racial boundaries and expanded to the crowd who are favor of hip hop culture.
The multi-negation of “ain’t” can be fully realized in the most influential black filmmaker Spike Lee’s masterpiece Do the Right Thing. The story happened in Brooklyn, New York, and demonstrated an explosion caused by the ethnic problems. There are a large number of unique performances of Black English in the dialogues: “Ain’t no brothers on the wall? I ain’t run like that in years. Don’t call me no bum. Jade don’t come here no more, all right? Don’t call me nothing.”
Although many so-called “not standard”regulations of Black English have been criticized for a long time, its expression is an important means to promote Black Culture of the Hollywood directors and become a beautiful view in American films.
3.3 The Influence on American Literature
In the destiny of black, there must be a clearly visible way, on which they have worked with effort to win dignity and literary. Through their effort, it exhibited such a road as well as those marks in relation to life along the way: once in Black history, unforgettable pain is essential for the experience to the results today. Black Literature, in the United States and the world, has been mainly as slaves, especially in countries outside Africa.
The Black English writer Toni Morrison was born in black family, and later achieved today’s scholars and writer’s identity by reading. In 1993, because of her “making the important part of American society much more vigorously through the rich poetic imagination and expression”, she won the Nobel Prize for Literature, and became the only black women writer in history to be honored.
Not only the Black Literature but also the American Literature has these characters of Black English in their works.
The Sound and the Fury (1929) is written by a famous American writer William Faulkner (1897-1962). The first part, “April 7th, 1928”, describes the conversation and action between the children in the farm waiting for the coming of procession.
“I skeered I going to holler,” T.P said.
“Get on the box and see is they started.”
“They haven’t started because the band hasn’t come yet.” Caddy said.
“They ain’t going t have no band.” Frony said.
“How do you know?” Caddy said.
“I know what I knows,” Frony said.
“You don’t know anything,” Caddy said.
“She went to the tree.”
“Put me up,” Versh.
“Your paw told you to stay out that tree,” Versh said.
“That was a long time ago,” Caddy said,
“I except he’s forgotten about it, besides he said to mind me tonight. Didn’t he say to mind me tonight?”
“I’m not going to mind you, T .P and Frony are not going to either,” Jason said.[12]4
The children in this conversation turn out to be totally different between T.P, Frony, Versh and Caddy, Jason. The dialogue of the first three people has some characters of Black English. For example, “be” in the sentence “I (am) skeered (that) I (am ) going to holler” which is the distinct signal of Black English. On the contrary, the conversation of Candy and Jason do not omit this part as Jason says that “I’m not going to mind you,TP and Frony are not going to either”. And the singular verb of third person even does not have any difference with first person or any one else in the sentence “I know what I knows”. In addition, the mixture of // and // of the word “git” in the sentence “got on the box” is very common in Black English. It turns out that T.P, Frony and Versh are children of black in the farm, while Caddy and Jason are children of the farmer.
On the other hand, many black people like Frederick and William, not only struggle to learn the culture, but also use the pen as a weapon after the flight. They took active part in the abolitionist movement and expressed positive public opinions. Slave owner always treat Black people as the inferior race, so Black people’s ability to carry out literature itself is a powerful evidence of that lie, let alone the rich ideological content in their articles. And all of these proof that Black people is an excellent nation with a historical cultural tradition on the literature and their language also plays an irreplaceable role in the development of American literature.
4. The Practical Significance of Black English
In1863, 2 years before the war ended, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation freed the slaves in the Confederate states. Shortly after the war ended in 1865, the thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution freed all slaves. A few years later, the fourteenth and fifteenth Amendments gave the former slaves full civil rights, including giving African-American men the right to vote.[13]77
In politics, more blacks are voting, and more are getting elected. Since 40 years ago, the Black middle-class group has risen from scratch and grown in their standard of living. There are no difference in professional skills and educational background with the white middle class. Outstanding representatives of Black people appear in many areas of the United States, such as the Black mayor, governor, ministers and members of Congress, and all of them are no longer surprise to us. The much more important thing is that Democratic candidate Barack Obama won the U.S. presidential election in 2008 to become the first real chance to win the presidency in the Black.
Blacks are also trying to improve their financial position by going into professions or starting their own business. There are now more than 600,000 black-owned companies in the U.S. and blacks are more numerous than ever in the professions-as teachers, doctors, lawyers, judges and ministers.
In 1952, Ralph Ellison, a black author, wrote a book about blacks in the U.S. called the Invisible Man. Since the 1960s, blacks have become more visible on TV and in movies and magazines. Networks, filmmakers and advertisers now realize that black consumers want to see their race represented. Today, blacks in significant numbers work as newscasters, TV actors and actresses, and movie stars.
Huang Weifeng says in his African American English on a Number of Historical Issues that, “Only when the racism in American society has been completely eradicated from the mind, the Black Cultural expressions of Black English can really be recognized.”81
5. Conclusion
“Black English” is widely used as the name because it is used by Black people. In fact, its user of this language is far beyond our imagination. In addition to the external community in the black population, it is also used by lower middle and low classes in America. It has profound impacts on American culture and communication in various aspects, especially with the continuous improvement of their political, economic and cultural status, and Black English has been paid more and more attention. In view of this, the paper starts to explore the formation and characteristics of its existence and development. It is said that the view of helping people understand the Black Culture correctly, the concept of eliminating the racial discrimination and enhancing the awareness to protect national culture plays an important role to cultural exchanges and cultural diversity.
The above discussion of Black English is by no means comprehensive but it can serve our purpose to improve the regulation and state of Black English. The significance of studying the nature of Black English is really multifaceted. While the most direct one is the significance for lingu istic research. The attitude to the question that whether Black English is a dialect or a language determines the methods of research. This paper argues that Black English is essentially a separate system and its significance to the American Culture. It should be researched as an independent study of language. [17]34
Undoubtedly, the Black English makes Black people more dramatic in the movies. The syntax rules and special vocabulary of Black English, which are incompatible with the mainstream of English, become the foundation of their culture with their bold dance and passive music. Although most black people using Black English live in the southern United States and the countries, those well-educated middle-class blacks also use Black English in some informal gatherings.
With the black music, novels and movies continuously mix into the mainstream of American society, the syntax rules and special vocabulary of Black English begin to be accepted by American English and become parts of the American culture. Because of the worldwide spread of English and increasingly prosperous Black Culture, the Black English will be more widely active in screen as a mature variation of English and an important way to display the diverse culture of the United States.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks go to my tutor, Wu Qing, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books.
My greatest personal debt is to my grandparents and parents, who have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me.
The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.
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誠 信 承 諾
我謹在此承諾:本人所寫的畢業(yè)論文《論黑人英語對美國文化的影響及其現(xiàn)實意義》均系本人獨立完成,沒有抄襲行為,凡涉及其他作者的觀點和材料,均作了注釋,若有不實,后果由本人承擔。
承諾人(簽名): 徐珊珊
關鍵詞:權(quán)力距離 不確定性規(guī)避 個人主義-集體主義 男性度-女性度
一、Hofstede的文化心理模式與寫作
荷蘭跨文化合作研究所的霍夫斯特德(Hofstede,1980)做過一項著名的跨文化比較研究,他曾對IBM公司在40個國家、地區(qū)中的10余萬雇員,用20種語言進行了一項長達7年的研究,發(fā)現(xiàn)這些國家在文化上的差異主要表現(xiàn)為4個方面:即“權(quán)力距離”、“不確定性回避”、“個體取向與集體取向”、“男性化與女性化”。這4個方面也就是民族文化差異的4個維度,每一種文化的特點都可以用它在這4個維度上的強弱來表示。
1.“權(quán)力距離”(power distance) ,指一種文化對社會地位差別和等級重要性的看重程度。也可視為上級對下級,管理者對被管理者的影響力和控制力的大小。在權(quán)力距離大的文化中,整個社會是一個等級較鮮明的組織系統(tǒng);而權(quán)力距離較小的文化則會使人們有較為平等的觀念。
2.“不確定性規(guī)避”(uncertainty avoidence),指社會大眾面對不確定性和模糊情境所產(chǎn)生恐懼感的強弱,及是否采取措施消除這種恐懼感。不確定因素規(guī)避指數(shù)高的文化信賴權(quán)威,避免分歧和不確定;而不確定因素規(guī)避指數(shù)低的文化樂于冒險和接受新奇、陌生的事物。
3.“個人主義-集體主義”(inpidualism-collectivism),指一種文化依賴和忠于個人自我的程度。個人主義傾向的社會,注重自我需要的滿足,追求多樣化的生活和自我價值的實現(xiàn);而集體主義傾向的社會則重視集體的利益及個人對集體的責任。
4.“男性度-女性度”(masculinity-femininity),指一種文化是看重自信、成就和財富擁有,還是更看重社會支持、生活質(zhì)量等其他方面。男性度指數(shù)高的社會崇尚成就和野心及其他陽剛行為;男性度指數(shù)低的文化中,工作和成就則是次要的,提倡的是人與人的相互依賴與和諧相處,同情弱者,重視人與自然的和諧。
文化屬于社會結(jié)構(gòu)的概念,是社會形態(tài)的組成部分,文化模式就是一個社會中所有文化內(nèi)容(包括文化特質(zhì)與文化叢)組合在一起的特殊形式和結(jié)構(gòu),因此,文化模式反映的是一個社會的結(jié)構(gòu)、形態(tài)、運行等總的社會意識。語言作為文化的載體,必然負載著一個民族的文化心理模式。美國應用語言學家羅伯特.凱普蘭(Robert Kaplan,1966)便發(fā)現(xiàn),語言和寫作是文化現(xiàn)象,每一種語言都有其獨一無二的修辭習慣,篇章的組織方式反映了人的思維模式。他總結(jié)了五種文化不同的段落組成類型,其中英語的段落模式與漢語的段落模式便有很大的不同,英語篇章的組織和發(fā)展是"直線型"(linear),即直截了當?shù)仃愂鲋黝},進行論述;漢語學生典型作文方式呈"螺旋型"(circular/spiral),即不直接切入主題,而是在主題外圍"兜圈子"或"旁敲側(cè)擊",最后進入主題??ㄆ仗m有關思維模式和寫作的研究導致了對比修辭研究的發(fā)展。文化和心理模式的研究成為探討第二外語寫作的重要角度。本文便想從霍夫斯特德的四種文化思維模式來透視中國學生英語論文與英語母語論文的差異。
二、中國人的文化心理模式
1.中國文化中較大的權(quán)力距離
中國經(jīng)過長期的封建社會和儒家禮教的熏陶,整個社會都籠罩在“三綱五?!钡牡燃売^念中。上下級甚至父子、兄弟之間都有不同的權(quán)力等級。雖然“君叫臣死,臣不得不死;父叫子亡,子不得不亡”等封建觀念已然過時,但“長兄如父、官大一級壓死人、師道尊嚴”這些上下觀念依然深入人心。較大的權(quán)力距離使得中國文化中的人們比較尊重上級、長者或已有的權(quán)威,習慣順從和接受。與之相比,英語國家封建社會的歷史都較短,文化在很大程度上繼承了古代希臘文明的民主議會制度,說英語人數(shù)最多的美國和澳洲又都是年輕的大陸,英語文化的權(quán)力距離相對較小,人們崇尚平等,敢于提出自己的觀點。
2.中國文化中較高的不確定性規(guī)避指數(shù)
不確定性和標新立異往往與社會等級化的程度成反比。在即成的、穩(wěn)定的社會組織系統(tǒng)中,不確定性自然不受青睞。因此,中國文化的不確定性規(guī)避指數(shù)也相應較高,人們對尚未被社會輿論或權(quán)威確定的事物往往采取規(guī)避態(tài)度,不太喜歡競爭和沖突,追求有秩序的社會生活,力求將可能發(fā)生的不確定性降低到最低限度。另外,中國作為四大文明古國,處肥沃之地,以居住地為根,衍出“家本位”,更導致人們對不確定和模糊情境的較強恐懼;而多數(shù)英語國家探險和遷移的傳統(tǒng)使得英語文化中的人們較喜歡探索未知的領域,敢于冒險和面對挑戰(zhàn)。
3.中國文化強調(diào)集體主義
在英語文化中,個人主義(inpidualism)包含著自我認知、自我實現(xiàn)、自我控制、自我突破等優(yōu)秀品質(zhì)(Waterman,1984)。但在中國文化中,個人主義常有自私、不考慮集體利益、特立獨行等負面內(nèi)涵。中國的文化更重視互相依賴和共享的集體利益。自我的價值實現(xiàn)、成就的追求會受到有意識的壓抑和貶低,以求得同集體中其他成員的和諧。
4.中國文化的女性主義傾向
根據(jù)霍夫斯特德的界定,男性主義的文化崇尚成就和野心;而女性主義文化提倡的,人與人的相互依賴、重視的是人與自然的和諧相處。雖然中國有男尊女卑思想,且對物質(zhì)和金錢非常崇拜,表面上看是一個男性度高的社會;但本質(zhì)上,對追求成功、重視成就、崇尚力量、速度、高大等男子氣概并不認同。相反,中國的儒家精神倡導“修身、齊家、治國、平天下”,強調(diào)道德規(guī)范自覺能力,人的價值通過“內(nèi)省”、“克己”來表現(xiàn),形成中國人內(nèi)傾的性格。 林語堂先生在其成名作《中國人》上,把中國人的性格概括為,“老實溫厚,遇事忍耐,消極避世,超脫老滑,和平主義,知足常樂,幽默滑稽,因循守舊。”雖然有些偏頗,但也真實反映了中國文化的女性主義傾向。
從以上四種文化維度的內(nèi)涵和數(shù)據(jù)上都可以看出,中國文化與英語文化在價值取向上有很大差異。這些差異不僅體現(xiàn)為跨文化交際中的障礙,對第二外語寫作也會產(chǎn)生一定的負遷移作用。Connor(1997)在《對比修辭——第二語言寫作中的跨文化層面》一書中提到,霍夫斯特德的四種文化維度可以用來進一步從心理學的角度探討跨文化寫作的差異。 Nelson & Carson(1995)和SU-YUEH WU也都分別對中國和北美學生英文寫作中的各自的“集體主義”或“個人主義”傾向進行過研究。本文想通過將中國學生用英語寫的學術(shù)論文與英語母語學者用英語寫的學術(shù)論文進行對比,從霍夫斯特德的四個文化維度角度來找尋差異的原因,以改進我國學生的英語論文水平。
轉(zhuǎn)貼于 三、中國學生的ESL學術(shù)論文和英語母語學者學術(shù)論文的對比
1.引用時附帶的尊稱
英文母語論文中每逢引用名家或其他作者的原文時,往往只加上“According to(根據(jù)xxx的話)”、“As xxx says(如xxx所說)”,或直接在引號后注上所引的出處。英語母語的論文很重視將別人的話加上引號,標明出處。但標明本身即意味著尊重,很少再附加其他的尊稱。但中文的論文在引用名家之言時,僅僅說明出處似乎遠不能表達對作者的尊重,“xx先生”、“xx教授”、“xxx翁”、“著名xxx家”等標簽常常可見。中國學生的英語論文中在引用時也相應地有“the well-known(famous/great/experienced(知名的/著名的/偉大的/資深的))”等恭維性修飾詞,或“其觀點對xx領域做出重要貢獻(奠定了xx的基礎)”等推崇性句子,以表明其所引話語的權(quán)威性。這種對權(quán)威的恭維明顯是受中文傳統(tǒng)的影響。而這種傳統(tǒng)可能是源于中國較大的權(quán)力距離造成的習慣思維。在權(quán)力距離大的社會中,直接提到長者的名諱是十分無禮的,甚至有砍頭之罪。這種傳統(tǒng)流傳下來,便造成了習慣性的附加尊稱,在用第二語言寫作時,也難以避免。
2.引用成語或俗語的頻率
這里所說的成語或俗語是指已在語言中固定下來的表達法,這些引用在英語論文中并不得到欣賞,被稱為“cliché”(陳詞濫調(diào)),英語的論文中喜歡使用某些自創(chuàng)的隱喻,或靈活使用一些慣用語,卻很少照搬已有的成語或俗語(在統(tǒng)計的5篇文章中,這種“cliché”的數(shù)量為零)。而中文論文卻把這些固定成語、諺語或格言看作是全篇必備的“華彩樂章”,一種文采的體現(xiàn)。因此中文中的引用不僅僅包括英語中常用的“觀點回顧”(literature review),更重要的是用名家之言、古詩、古諺使自己的話更有說服力。這種應用成語俗語的習慣也常常被沿用到中國學生的英語寫作中,動輒“as the old saying”(古語云)等。然而,這種引用在英語中卻有“拉大旗,作虎皮”之嫌。對成語、名家的引用也反映了不同文化對權(quán)威的態(tài)度以及對不確定性的規(guī)避程度。中國文化不確定性的規(guī)避指數(shù)較高,權(quán)威之言意味著被社會廣泛認可,因此,引經(jīng)據(jù)典可以盡量避免分歧,減少可能發(fā)生的不確定性。相反,英語文化喜歡競爭與沖突,因此,自己的觀點盡量用自己獨特的表達方式,避免步人后塵。英語文章不僅不喜歡使用“陳詞濫調(diào)”,對自己的觀點還常常從不同角度反證其可能性。而中國學生的論文則追求自圓其說,盡量減少不確定性。
3.結(jié)論中第一人稱復數(shù)和第一人稱單數(shù)的使用頻率
從數(shù)據(jù)上看,中文的5篇論文與英語的五篇論文使用第一人稱復數(shù)(we/us/our)的頻率似乎相當,但實際上,5篇英語文章的結(jié)論都在700-1000詞左右,而漢語的結(jié)論則都在200-300字左右,中國學生的英語論文的結(jié)論也很短,都在200詞左右。在這樣的字詞總數(shù)比例下,第一人稱復數(shù)在漢語文章中的使用頻率就遠遠高于在英語文章中的使用頻率。英語文章結(jié)論中使用較多的是第一人稱單數(shù)(first singular pronouns)和個人的觀點(personal anecdotes)。在有的文章中達到12次之多,如
By way of concluding, I would like to make four comments.
I have now stated that…
I have suggested that…
I consider it important to …
I want to make it clear that…
My second/third comment relates to
I have pided…
I have outlined…
I believe that…
My concern here is …
第一人稱單數(shù)和個人觀點的使用體現(xiàn)了文章作者對自我的展示和肯定,體現(xiàn)了英語文化中的個人主義傾向和男性主義傾向。他們認為個人的經(jīng)歷最有說服力,只有自己相信自己,才能說服讀者。而中文論文卻相比之下,對自己的觀點比較謙虛,常常出現(xiàn)“以上各點信手寫來,全是一孔之見,還望行家不吝指正”(李觀儀,2003)等謙辭,以保持學術(shù)界的和諧。這種對和諧的追求體現(xiàn)了中國文化的集體主義和女性主義傾向。中國學生的英語論文對自己的觀點評價不夠自信,更多使用的是第一人稱復數(shù),也顯然受此影響。
四、結(jié)語
論文摘要:目前,國內(nèi)關于非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)中傳統(tǒng)音樂方面的文本資料繁多,識記理論復雜,在傳統(tǒng)的學習與交流方式中存在著形式單一、學習媒體落后、怠視非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)工作者的主體性等許多不足,這些因素已經(jīng)妨礙了非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)工作者在高標準高效率、高質(zhì)量的方面接受中國傳統(tǒng)音樂的交流。為此,合理利用多媒體技術(shù)進行非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)中傳統(tǒng)音樂的學習與交流,有助于非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)工作者對知識豐富內(nèi)涵的理解與把握,擴展其藝術(shù)文化視野。
中國傳統(tǒng)音樂是指具有一定流傳時間的、不屬于當代音樂家創(chuàng)作的音樂。在我國學術(shù)界,通常把清代以前即已形成的音樂或以后所發(fā)生的具有傳統(tǒng)音樂形態(tài)的音樂,劃歸于傳統(tǒng)音樂的范疇。其中不僅包括在歷史上產(chǎn)生、流傳至今的古代作品,也包括當代中國人民用本民族固有形式創(chuàng)作的、具有本民族固有形態(tài)特征的音樂作品??梢哉f,中國傳統(tǒng)音樂在它數(shù)千年的發(fā)展歷程中,無論從律制、音階、宮調(diào)、音樂形態(tài)特征、文化傳統(tǒng)到民族思維方式,均形成了自己獨特的規(guī)律和特點。、
中國傳統(tǒng)音樂文化是中國非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)的重要部分,是東方文化的集中表現(xiàn)之一,有著獨特的價值系統(tǒng)和思維方式,是人類文明發(fā)展史上的一塊瑰寶。傳承和保護中國傳統(tǒng)音樂文化,有助于增強我們的民族自尊心與自信心,可以開闊文化視野,了解與把握傳統(tǒng)音樂文化的精神與特質(zhì),加強的歷史責任感。充分運用多媒體技術(shù)在中國非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)中國傳統(tǒng)音樂學習與交流中的應用具有十分重要的意義。
1傳統(tǒng)音樂學習與交流存在的問題
1.1人類思維網(wǎng)狀結(jié)構(gòu)與傳統(tǒng)教材組織上的線性有序特征之間的矛盾
認知心理學的研究已經(jīng)證明,人類的思維記憶具有聯(lián)想特征,在閱讀或思考問題時經(jīng)常從一個概念或主題經(jīng)過聯(lián)想轉(zhuǎn)移到另一個相關的概念或主題,是一種非線性的、縱橫交織的網(wǎng)狀結(jié)構(gòu)。目前國內(nèi)出版的所有中國傳統(tǒng)音樂教材,在學習內(nèi)容組織上均體現(xiàn)出線性、有序的特征。在這種線性的內(nèi)容組織環(huán)境下,非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)工作者對知識的攝取難免被動、程式化,在一定程度上會限制其聯(lián)想思維能力的發(fā)展。
1.2文本資料過多、識記理論復雜趣味性少與學習興趣之間的矛盾
國內(nèi)傳統(tǒng)音樂學習與交流多年來一直存在著純文本資料過多、各民族傳統(tǒng)音樂獨立單處、針對性研究、形成不了一條主線的缺憾,這是專家根據(jù)自身研究方向進行的單一民族傳統(tǒng)音樂的研究造成的。
1.3手段陳舊有限的時間內(nèi)很難完成繁重的學習與交流內(nèi)容
中國傳統(tǒng)音樂的學習與交流一般都以專家口頭傳授為主,加入一些視聽資料,無法及時地展現(xiàn)知識信息,專家的講授受到限制,授課的視聽效果不能做到步調(diào)一致,講授中出現(xiàn)的問題不能及時地反饋給非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)學習者。如中國傳統(tǒng)音樂講授、中需要介紹到各個時期大量的譜例,傳統(tǒng)的講授方法只能通過專家的板書讓非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)工作者觀看,然后做譜面上的分析,或者利用鋼琴即興演奏,動作示范只能是局部的,學習者很難把動、靜有機地結(jié)合起來,畢竟鋼琴的音色是單一的,表達音樂風格的準確性不能盡如人意。
2多媒體技術(shù)對傳統(tǒng)音樂學習與交流的積極作用
2.1多媒體技術(shù)可以擴展和放大信息空間
用多媒體技術(shù)處理的信息可以呈現(xiàn)出多樣化和多維化,使那些抽象難懂,用語言不易表達的內(nèi)容變得生動具體一目了然。多媒體課件利用“超文本”和“超媒體”技術(shù)按照人腦的聯(lián)想思維方式在課件中重新組織編排講授信息,將講授內(nèi)容整合為一種非線性的網(wǎng)狀結(jié)構(gòu),專家在授課時就可根據(jù)講授思路在不同章節(jié)之間、章節(jié)內(nèi)容知識點之間靈活“跳轉(zhuǎn)”,及時獲取課件上的相關信息來輔助講授。
2.2多媒體技術(shù)的應用縮短了學習者將信息轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)橹R的過程.
科學研究表明:人類的思維方式是一種散發(fā)式的非線性的思維方式。多媒體的信息組織方式正符合中國傳統(tǒng)音樂講授的需要,它可以實現(xiàn)多角度、多方位、多層次、非線性的信息傳輸與交流,幫助學習者建立思維、改善思維、減少思維過程中的彎路,較快的接近學習目標;多媒體的引入還能把聲音和譜例完美結(jié)合,實現(xiàn)音色和風格的統(tǒng)一,完成音樂風格的具象化,使學習者能夠身臨其境。
2.3應用多媒體技術(shù)可以營造一個身臨其境的學習氛圍,符合時代要求
多媒體技術(shù)的迅猛發(fā)展與廣泛應用為我們傳統(tǒng)的外國音樂講授手段和方法改革帶來了新的契機,這是中國傳統(tǒng)音樂講授過程別重要的,學習者的認知當然需要從別的教材、工具書中汲取一些專業(yè)信息作為補充,但是如果我們利用多媒體講授手段的信息集成優(yōu)勢,則會大大擴展原有的講授資源。
3多媒體技術(shù)在中國傳統(tǒng)音樂學習與交流中的應用
Abstract: The purpose of this study is to compare the structures of English-language titles in the two counterpart journals in economics field and whether. To this end, the corpus of 237 titles in Quarterly Journal of Economics (QJE) and 311 titles in Jingjixue Jikan (China Economic Quarterly) or (CEQ) are built. And all the titles are categorized into five classes: Noun Phrase, Compound, Full-sentence, Verbal Phrase, and Prepositional Phrase. More detailed investigation includes the comparison of words and expressions in the titles. The results show a sharp contrast between structure of the titles in two journals and the trend of title forms, such as the different frequency of occurrences of types or subtypes of titles. And the results provide guidance for the L2 Chinese writers compile a suitable English research article titles while publishing articles in journals in either domestic or international journals.
關鍵詞: 論文標題;經(jīng)濟學;體裁分析;對比研究;二語寫作
Key words: research article titles; economics; genre analysis; contrastive analysis; second language writing
中圖分類號:G23文獻標識碼:A文章編號:1006-4311(2011)18-0304-03
0引言
近十余年來,隨著對學術(shù)語篇研究的興起,語言學家越來越重視體裁分析方法在這一領域的應用,并形成了以John Swales (1990) 為代表的語步分析法,其對學術(shù)語篇前言進行了實證研究提出了CARS Model。隨后引發(fā)了學者們的濃厚興趣,他們將注意力集中于學術(shù)語篇的不同部分,例如,Lores (2004)和Martin(2003)研究了學術(shù)語篇的摘要部分,Homes(1997)研究了學術(shù)論文討論部分,Yang和Allison (2003)研究了學術(shù)論文的結(jié)論部分,等等。本文將針對學術(shù)論文的標題部分進行對比研究,其方法也是體裁分的實證研究方法,目的在于發(fā)現(xiàn)國內(nèi)外經(jīng)濟學期刊英語標題的結(jié)構(gòu)特點,并能夠?qū)χ袊鴮W者撰寫英語標題提供參考。
1學術(shù)論文標題研究綜述
80年代末以來,以“體裁分析之父”(Pérez-Llantada, 2004:140)John Swales (1990) 為代表的體裁分析法(genre analysis)的研究范式逐漸確立其在學術(shù)語篇的語言學研究中的地位。在1990年,John Swales 指出標題是學術(shù)體裁研究中被忽視的一個方面之一。隨著學者們對標題研究的關注與日俱增,研究成果不斷涌現(xiàn)。Yitzhaki (1997)比較了18種不同人文學科期刊的論文標題中的實詞數(shù)量目的在于檢驗學術(shù)論文標題的信息密集性。Busch-Lauer (2000) 分別對比了醫(yī)學和語言學領域內(nèi)的英語和德語標題,發(fā)現(xiàn)醫(yī)學領域內(nèi)的標題長度比語言學內(nèi)的論文標題的字數(shù)明顯要多一些,并且確證了以德語為母語的學者習慣于用德語的思維方式撰寫標題,同時發(fā)現(xiàn)了所有的標題在兩個領域內(nèi)的作用都是交際功能的作用。Laurence Anthony(2001)通過對計算機領域期刊中600個論文標題的長度,標點使用,介詞使用和詞頻進行了研究,結(jié)果表明,計算機學科的論文標題有其自身的特點,例如,他發(fā)現(xiàn)介詞和冠詞在此類標題中出現(xiàn)的頻率最高,其中介詞for在所選的6種期刊中的4種當中出現(xiàn)的頻率最高。最終得出的結(jié)論是計算機科學領域內(nèi)的標題有其自身的特點,但是同時也提出,論文標題的特點因?qū)W科不同而有差異,這樣的普遍性結(jié)論有待進一步的研究。隨后在2002年Yitzhaki又研究了24個重要期刊的論文標題與論文長度的關系,同時做了歷時比較的研究,發(fā)現(xiàn)文章長度和論文標題長度的關系是因科學類別的不同而不同,在所謂“硬”科學內(nèi)標題長度與文章長度的相關性較“軟”科學更強。Haggan (2004)則是同時分別比較研究了文學,語言學和理科科學的論文標題的結(jié)構(gòu)特點。她將標題按形式分為句子型,名詞型和短語型三類。研究結(jié)果顯示出三個不同領域內(nèi)的標題都互不相同,各有特點,同時指出標題的功能在于引起讀者閱讀文章的興趣。Hartley (2005c,2007a,2007b)從不同方面探討了論文標題的特點或功能:一、指出論文標題應當同時具有傳遞信息和吸引讀者的作用;二、將論文標題按功能重新分類,共有12類并且分析了各類的特點和功能;三、研究了冒號在學術(shù)論文中的使用偏好。最近的研究是Soler (2007)對研究型學術(shù)論文和綜述型學術(shù)論文的標題結(jié)構(gòu)的實證研究。在570個標題中,480個為研究型論文標題,90個是綜述型論文標題,時間跨度從1996年至2002年,涉及的學科領域是生物學和社會學,她將標題按結(jié)構(gòu)分為句子型,問句型,名詞詞組型和復合型,同時還對標題的長度進行了研究,結(jié)果表明,綜述型標題的長度在兩個領域都非常的短,復合型標題是社會科學體裁研究型論文標題的特點。句子型標題是研究型論文標題的文章類型的特點,尤其是生物學領域內(nèi)的研究型論文標題的特點。
國內(nèi)的標題研究主要分為兩類:漢英單語種獨立研究和漢語標題的英譯。例如王英格(1993)研究了英語學術(shù)論文標題的語法和修辭特點。化柏林(2007)對圖書情報學類核心期刊論文標題進行了計量研究,共對42989篇文獻的標題進行統(tǒng)計分析,涉及到標題長度,句型以及標題中相關詞匯的研究,如題首詞,題尾詞,關鍵詞等。而論文標題的漢英翻譯的研究有,段萍和顧維萍(2002)的關于醫(yī)學論文的標題和摘要的漢譯英的常見錯誤的分析的研究,周永模(2002)的關于哲學和人文社會科學的論文標題的漢譯英的標準的探討。另外,值得一提的是王成宇(2003)對英漢雙語的疑問型學術(shù)論文標題進行的對比研究。
綜上所述,學術(shù)論文的標題研究成果逐漸豐碩,本文將就前人的研究成果繼續(xù)深化和推進學術(shù)論文標題的研究,基本的研究思路是以體裁為切入點,即語言學類研究型學術(shù)論文;英英對比,其特點在于中國學者的英文標題和國際學者的英文標題的對比;以及采用實證研究方法。
2研究方法
首先本文選取了中美經(jīng)濟學兩本在各自學術(shù)共同體中的權(quán)威期刊:中國的《經(jīng)濟學(季刊)》(China Economic Quarterly (CEQ))和美國麻省理工學院(MIT)的Quarterly Journal of Economics (QJE)。建立了一個含有548個英語科研原創(chuàng)論文標題的語料庫,其中CEQ 中隨機選取311 個標題,QJE 中隨機選取237個標題。按照語料庫的建庫原則以及對比語言學的可比性原則,標題的選取時間跨度為2004至2009年(由于研究時間限制,2009年只收集部分標題),且不包括書評類以及其他體裁類型的文章標題。其次本文將所選標題分為五大類:名詞詞組型(Noun Phrase [NP]), 復合型(Compound [CP])即一個標題由兩部分組成,中間被冒號或其他符號隔開, 句子型(Full-sentence [FS]), 動詞詞組型(Verbal Phrase [VP]), 以及介詞詞組型(Prepositional Phrase [PP])。另外,本文還進一步細分了名詞詞組型標題和復合型標題,同時還統(tǒng)計了本語料庫中的NP和CP標題在近五年內(nèi)(2004-2008)的變化趨勢。
3研究結(jié)果與討論
標題應當體現(xiàn)信息性和經(jīng)濟性原則。信息性是指標題應當全面準確反映論文的內(nèi)容。經(jīng)濟性是指標題應當用最少的詞表達最豐富的意義。表1顯示了兩本期刊英語標題的平均長度。明顯的差異在于國內(nèi)的CEQ論文標題要比國外的QJE論文標題用詞偏長。就其原因在于英語不是中國人的母語,并且中國學者在撰寫英語論文標題時會受到中國文化的影響(Connor, 1996)。另外,無論CEQ論文標題是出于投稿人的翻譯或重新用英語撰寫,都會受到原來漢語標題的影響,我們的統(tǒng)計發(fā)現(xiàn),漢語標題會經(jīng)常出現(xiàn)“論”、“研究”以及“探討”之類的標題標記(尹世超,2001)。同時,國內(nèi)學者撰寫的英語論文標題會將這類標記詞翻譯出來形成“The study of …” 或“The analysis of …”之類表達形式。這無形中會增加英語標題的長度而不會因此增加標題的信息含量。
標題的功能有四種(尹世超,2001):稱名功能,概括功能,吸引功能和引導功能。如果綜合考慮標題的兩個原則和四個功能,那么復合型標題是最理想的標題形式。表2的復合型標題頻度百分比正好體現(xiàn)了這一選擇在英語環(huán)境下的要求。按照Swales和Feak(1994)的觀點此類標題(英語)的構(gòu)成為:問題-解決(problem-solution),一般-詳細(general-specific),話題-方法(topic-method)和主要-次要(major-minor)。這一構(gòu)成就能夠是撰寫者不通過語言手段而在兩部分之間建立聯(lián)系,達到信息性、經(jīng)濟性和吸引功能的統(tǒng)一。由于標題的基本功能是稱名功能所以名詞詞組型標題在兩本期刊中都占有較多的頻度。有趣的發(fā)現(xiàn)是,美國的QJE期刊論文標題出現(xiàn)了較多的句子型標題,共15個占該期刊語料的6.33%,以及較多的動詞詞組型標題,共8個占該期刊語料的3.38%。
兩本期刊使用最多的名詞詞組型標題都是NP+PP結(jié)構(gòu),即一個核心名詞后接一個介詞短語的結(jié)構(gòu)。但是,相比較而言,CEQ期刊論文NP標題的結(jié)構(gòu)相對較復雜。這一點似乎驗證了Connor(1996)的觀點,寫作是一種深嵌于文化的行為。即國內(nèi)學者撰寫英語論文標題時,會采用復雜的介詞短語限定討論話題的形式,而國外學者會直接采用其他策略比如說采用CP型標題結(jié)構(gòu)。這同時似乎也表明非母語寫作者會在使用第二外語時無意識的會凸顯過濾某些文化因素,這些因素會表現(xiàn)在語言層面,比如說,復雜的介詞短語結(jié)構(gòu)標題。
在標題具有稱名這一點上,中美期刊論文撰寫者又一次達成一致,即標題的前后兩部分都是名詞詞組結(jié)構(gòu)[NP:NP]。但是QJE期刊CP論文標題并不僅僅是依賴這一結(jié)構(gòu),作為美國學術(shù)共同體的研究者,他們會更多關注英語標題的其他功能如吸引功能,所以該類標題在QJE中呈現(xiàn)出較多的其他次級結(jié)構(gòu),如Q:NP[問句:名詞詞組]型。本語料庫中,最強烈的對比在于,QJE中會出現(xiàn)PP:NP類型標題和Q:Q類型標題,而CEQ中卻無此類型標題出現(xiàn);另外,在CEQ中會出現(xiàn)PP:NP和Q:VP類型標題,但是在QJE中,撰寫者不會才取此類型去撰寫標題。此現(xiàn)象有待于進一步的大規(guī)模的語料收集和分析。
從上圖可以看出,NP和CP標題在五類標題中在近五年內(nèi)呈增加趨勢。有趣的發(fā)現(xiàn)是,CP標題在兩本期刊中在2007年增至最多,相反的NP標題在兩本期刊中減至最少。相對于2007年來說,兩本期刊中的CP標題在2008年有所減少,而NP標題有所增加。最終的結(jié)果表明,經(jīng)濟學類期刊英語論文標題NP和CP類型出現(xiàn)的頻度趨近于相同,但總體呈增加態(tài)勢。
4結(jié)論
本研究表明經(jīng)濟學類中美兩本期刊的英語論文標題存在明顯差異。這些差異是由于文化社會因素造成。本研究的意義在于為經(jīng)濟學類同行撰寫英語論文標題提供幫助。進一步的研究可細致深入地探討經(jīng)濟學類英語論文標題的用詞特點。
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【關鍵詞】研究生英語;教學改革;建議
0 引言
目前,專家學者大多關注著我國小學、中學及大學本科階段的英語教學的費時低效現(xiàn)象。中學英語教學受中考高考的導向,考試型的教學令學生進入大學以后,很難達到“學習者在多元文化的環(huán)境中,不僅能用英語與他人交流,同時也要做“言之有物”和“言之有理”(文秋芳,2002)” 的大學英語教學的目標。大學英語教學總在補救式與發(fā)展中掙扎。同樣,從本科生讀上來的研究生們,在英語學習過程中也是存在種種問題?,F(xiàn)實要求研究生畢業(yè)后,他們不僅能閱讀與專業(yè)相關的外文資料, 還能具有一般的外語日常交流能力, 逐步過渡到口、筆探討學術(shù)問題, 作學術(shù)專題發(fā)言等。然而,事實上, 許多同學不僅不能進行簡單的日常對話, 連許多常用的單詞都讀不準。
1 目前研究生英語教學存在的問題和壓力
學生當中有一部分在大學本科兩年英語學習之后能堅持自學英語, 大部分卻處于斷檔階段; 兩年之后,又進入一次艱苦的循環(huán), 而后又是兩年的斷檔, 他們中一部分又進入博士階段的更短的循環(huán)。碩士研究生在公共必修課中,英語課時最多,任務最重,效果卻是最低的。在我校研究生教學安排中,第一學期64個課時,每周4個課時的綜合英語學習。第二學期口語和寫作共64學時,每周各2個學時。我們的課程設置仍然沿用本科階段的模式, 重視閱讀訓練, 輕視聽、說和寫的能力的培養(yǎng)。特別是研究生應該具備的論文寫作能力,國際學術(shù)會議發(fā)言的聽說能力的培養(yǎng)沒有進入課程設置中。教師們常常在一年的教學任務完成之后經(jīng)常惴惴不安地問自己: 我們給了自己的學生多少幫助?他們在過去大部分考過了英語四級, 有相當一部分考過了英語六級。我們研究生階段的教學還能用什么考試來加以有效地檢驗? 能否經(jīng)得起檢驗?
在面臨諸多問題的同時, 高校研究生英語教師也不斷感受著各種壓力。
1)研究生招生規(guī)模的逐年增加是教師感受最明顯的壓力。研究生教育從以前的精英式教育變成現(xiàn)在的大眾化教育。招生規(guī)模龐大, 學生的英語程度參差不齊,同時師生比嚴重失調(diào),教師不能全面了解學生情況,教學資源雪上加霜。這些必然導致教學效果差強人意。
2)網(wǎng)絡技術(shù)的發(fā)展給英語教學帶來的壓力?!皩W生已趨向于擯棄僅僅靠教材來學英語的模式, 轉(zhuǎn)而采取從多種媒介和渠道接受輸入?!保ㄠ崢涮模?996) 例如,在I Tunes U 上有來自世界各地的350,000 多個免費的講座,視頻,電影等其他學習資源,這使傳統(tǒng)的課堂英語教學受到極大的挑戰(zhàn),如何改變課程設置,如何在有限的課時中,把課堂學習與網(wǎng)絡有效利用結(jié)合起來成為研究生教學急需思考的問題。
3)社會英語辦學熱對英語教學的壓力。研究生期間各專業(yè)學生均有與國外大學合作做交換生或參與某項研究項目的機會,學生們充分感受到自己英語能力與個人就業(yè)前途的利害相關,許多學生在校外社會培訓機構(gòu)參加英語輔導班。這讓我們經(jīng)常反思, 我們自己的研究生英語課程該如何設置得更合理來適應他們的需要。
4)專業(yè)英語教學對英語教學的壓力, 許多研究生在本系必修的一些專業(yè)課程中有些是導師直接使用英語來講授, 使用的教材、講義也都是最新的;要求學生定期閱讀最新的本專業(yè)英語論文。甚至有的要求學生用英語討論、寫文章。再有, 還有些專業(yè)聘請外籍教師短期講授一些專業(yè)課程或講座。如何處理好研究生公外英語教學和他們在專業(yè)學習中對外語的使用這兩者之間的關系是很重要的。
2 新的教改新模式
這些壓力促使我們?nèi)ニ伎己透母铿F(xiàn)在的教學模式, 要求我們結(jié)合自身的條件和特點,勇于創(chuàng)新,不斷嘗試與時俱進的教育教學模式。新的模式試從以下幾個方面來進行。
2.1 課程設置方面的改革
第一學期開設聽力口語及閱讀與寫作課。第二學期,開設國際會議交流英語、西方文化、英漢比較研究及專業(yè)英語閱讀等系列課程。
第一學期課程設置在于強調(diào)學生培養(yǎng)運用能力,特別是閱讀與寫作課,除介紹寫作的基礎知識、資料的查詢外, 重點放在英語論文寫作上, 培養(yǎng)學生正確和規(guī)范地陳述和發(fā)表自己的研究成果的能力。英語寫作部分包括: 英語寫作基本知識, 實用英語寫作, 論文寫作。此外具體地介紹如何利用國際互聯(lián)網(wǎng)查找資料, 如何避免侵權(quán)行為, 如何寫電子郵件, 如何制作計算機輔助文稿演示片等新的內(nèi)容。上課內(nèi)容不限于書本, 而是多方面涉獵。學生以指定閱讀、瀏覽的書本作為課前預習內(nèi)容, 帶著問題有針對性地聽課再寫作展示。
第二學期的國際會議交流英語是對第一學期聽力口語及寫作課的拓展,國際會議交流英語主要包括下列內(nèi)容:論文的種類、摘要寫法、論文體例、、版權(quán)問題、論文宣讀。學習之后, 建立模擬課堂, 使學生有機會參與和觀摩國際會議的場景。
西方文化對于任何層次的學生都是必要的, 因為文化滲透至語言的各個層面。以往教師只是把課文中遇到的文化背景知識加以介紹, 現(xiàn)在將其單設為一門課, 有利于學生比較系統(tǒng)地了解西方的文化知識, 也必然會幫助學生更好地掌握英語。西方文化主要以講授美國文化為主。內(nèi)容涵蓋: 文化的基本概念、美國簡介、社會階層、經(jīng)濟活動、農(nóng)業(yè)與農(nóng)場主、家庭的變化、學校與教育、大眾傳播、科技與社會、種族關系、社會制安、老人與青年、政府與司法、社會變革等。上課的方式可以是老師講授,學生閱讀相關文章然后討論,也可以輔助以美國電影,電視。
英漢比較研究課旨在將學生多年來學習英語獲得的感性認識規(guī)律化、系統(tǒng)化, 揭示出英漢兩種語言主要的規(guī)律性差異, 讓學生的感性認識得以升華, 提高他們英語閱讀理解和欣賞能力, 使他們能用比較地道的英語進行表達。英漢比較研究講座主要是在詞匯、句法、邏輯、修辭、語篇等各層面討論英漢兩種語言的規(guī)律性差異, 主要內(nèi)容包括:英漢宏觀比較、英漢詞匯意義的對應關系、英漢句型的轉(zhuǎn)換、英漢否定的異同、語法關系與邏輯關系、英語修飾語與被修飾語的邏輯關系、英語邏輯意義重點、英語明喻和隱喻、英語行為、思維和言語動詞的轉(zhuǎn)換、英語定語從句的邏輯意義、英語長句的理解和翻譯等。
專業(yè)英語閱讀就是以學科為依托的英語教學,目的在于使學生通過熟悉的專業(yè)知識來理解并掌握英語表達的方式。以內(nèi)容為基石來學習英語語言的應用。例如我??梢赃x用水利英語,金融英語,醫(yī)學英語,商務英語,材料英語等。這樣可以把專業(yè)學習與英語語言學習有效結(jié)合,減少學生記憶負擔。
2.2 教學手段方面
1)調(diào)整課程時數(shù)。第一學期,聽力口語課每周2個學時,共32學時。閱讀與寫作課每周2個學時,共32個學時。 第二學期,開設國際會議交流英語、西方文化、英漢比較研究及專業(yè)英語閱讀等系列課程。每門課可以根據(jù)內(nèi)容適當調(diào)整課時數(shù),比如可以設為10個學時或16,但是要求學生確保每學期的64個課時。其目的在于學生在有限的英語學習時間靈動地學到實用的英語技能并付諸實踐,改變多年一沉不變的語言的學習模式。
2)進行分級教學。使英語水平一般的學生通過聽說讀寫譯各方面的深入學習, 鞏固他們本科階段的英語基礎, 進一步提高他們的基本能力, 使他們大部分順利通過學位課考試, 修得學分; 另一方面, 對于通過考試證明英語基本能力已經(jīng)不錯的學生, 滿足他們在英語文化知識方面和語言交際能力方面學習的需要。快班由任課教師在統(tǒng)編教材的基礎上較大力度地補充其他教學材料, 根據(jù)他們語言能力相對優(yōu)于普通班學生的特點, 更多地組織他們進行形式多樣的互動教學, 進一步提高他們在語言實際運用方面的能力。
3)教學方式多樣。課堂講授式,大班講座式,師生互動式,小組討論展示式等都是可以嘗試的教學方式。再者,傳統(tǒng)課堂與網(wǎng)絡技術(shù)融合,把課堂不僅僅設在教室,也可以有網(wǎng)絡教室。把一些教學資源及教學要求語言中心的局域網(wǎng)上, 學生自主安排時間分散地學習, 教師通過網(wǎng)絡與學生交流, 答疑解惑,布置作業(yè)并檢查。同時在教師選擇方面,一些課可以請外教來進行,一些課可以邀請有參加國際會議和多次在國際學術(shù)雜志上的豐富經(jīng)驗的教師做講座, 使學生能學有榜樣。
3 以上的改革措施成功實施并能取得效果的前提條件
1)課程設置的變化要求有足夠滿足各課程教學的老師。目前的師生比是完全滿足這樣的教學要求的,所以需要引進更多的教學人員進入研究生教育活動;同時研究生教學的老師要有進修學習的機會,特別是假期短期的培訓,參與學術(shù)研討會尤為重要。
2)要有眾多的各類適合的教材和教學資源。因為新開設的課程很多重在實用,那么選擇新穎、適用的教材勢在必行。教材所選文章的語言要合適。那些要么淺顯直白; 要么晦澀艱深,要么課文題材陳舊, 話題過時; 要么選文求新求長,結(jié)果通篇盡是哩語、俗語的教材都是要擯棄的。
3)通過有效的考核建立學習激勵的機制。即將建立的學位課考試應該包含部分課程內(nèi)容,否則學生的英語學習很難堅持。學生英語學習的考試,既有水平測試,也要有課程考試。
4)加強學生英語學習管理。對學生的課堂表現(xiàn)進行量化統(tǒng)計, 設立學習目標杠桿調(diào)控出勤的自覺意識。
4 結(jié)束語
本校研究生英語教學大刀闊斧的改革提到歷史日程,以上是初步設想及措施,在實施的過程中,一定會有新的問題出現(xiàn),讓我們?yōu)橥晟平虒W實踐進行積極的努力。進一步深化英語教學改革, 使研究生的英語教學更上一層樓。
【參考文獻】
[1]戴煒棟.外語教學的“費時低效”現(xiàn)象――思考與對策[J].外語與外語教學, 2001,7.
[2]鄭樹棠.關于大學英語課培養(yǎng)語言能力等情況的研究[J].外語界,1996,4.